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This page looks at the acidity of the hydrogen halides - hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen bromide and hydrogen iodide. It starts by describing their physical properties and how......

This page deals with Raoult's Law and how it applies to solutions in which the solute is non-volatile - for example, a solution of salt in water. A non-volatile solute (the salt, for example)......

This page looks at how fragmentation patterns are formed when organic molecules are fed into a mass spectrometer, and how you can get information from the mass spectrum. The origin of......

Background Bonding in the halogenoalkanes Halogenoalkanes (also known as haloalkanes or alkyl halides) are compounds containing a halogen atom (fluorine, chlorine, bromine or iodine) joined to one......

This page looks at some aspects of manganese chemistry required for UK A' level exams. It includes: two simple reactions of manganese(II) ions in solution (summarised from elsewhere on the site),......

This page gives you the facts and a simple, uncluttered mechanism for the nucleophilic addition / elimination reaction between acyl chlorides (acid chlorides) and alcohols. If you want the......

This page describes how simple acid-base indicators work, and how to choose the right one for a particular titration. Warning: This page assumes that you know about pH curves for all the......

This page looks at the reaction of the carbon-carbon double bond in alkenes such as ethene with hydrogen halides such as hydrogen chloride and hydrogen bromide. Symmetrical alkenes (like ethene......

This page explains the terms complex ion and ligand , and looks at the bonding between the ligands and the central metal ion. It discusses various sorts of ligand (including some quite......

This page looks at some aspects of cobalt chemistry required for UK A' level exams. These are mainly summarised from elsewhere on the site, with links available to more detailed......

This page describes the structures of the Period 3 elements from sodium to argon, and shows how these structures can be used to explain the physical properties of the elements. Variation in......

This page looks at the reactions of the Group 1 elements - lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium and caesium - with water. It uses these reactions to explore the trend in reactivity in Group 1.......

This page looks at various ways of making nitriles - from halogenoalkanes (haloalkanes or alkyl halides), from amides, and from aldehydes and ketones. It pulls together information from pages......

ORGANIC BONDING MENU Electronic structure and orbitals . . . An introduction to the arrangement of electrons in atoms - leading to the modern electronic structures of carbon and hydrogen. Bonding......

This page starts by looking at the extraction of aluminium from its ore, bauxite, including some economic and environmental issues. It finishes by looking at some uses of aluminium.......

As mentioned in the previous page on ATP , the process of respiration is split into 3 distinct areas that occur at different parts of the cell. Respiration involves the oxidation of foodstuff......

Homeostasis is the relatively stable conditions of the internal environment that result from compensatory regulatory responses performed by homeostatic control systems. The set point of a......

Previous sections have indicated the importance of homeostatic control, the requirement of a set environment and how evolution and natural selection adapts a species to favour its environment. In......

During the latter stage stages of the 20th century, man harnessed the power of the atom, and not long after, soon realised the power of genes. Genetic engineering is going to become a very......

External Form of a woody twigA woody twig, or stem, is an axis with leaves attached. The leaves are arranged in various ways around and on the axis. You may hear them described as alternate,......